Barn swallow—Hirundo rustica

Habitat: Open areas such as pastures, rural structures, often found in the vicinity of water.

Because of their northward migratory patterns, barn swallows are recognized as symbols of the coming of spring and summer. Swallows frequently appear in myths, as in Ovid’s retelling of the story of the sisters Philomela and Procne in Metamorphoses—both sisters were turned into birds, Philomela into a nightingale and Procne into a swallow.

Dove (rock dove)—Columba domestica

Habitat: Open and semiopen spaces, including both urban and agricultural areas.

Traditionally a symbol of peace and love, the dove was highly regarded by Romans and appears in mosaics and frescoes. Doves were an attribute of Venus, the goddess of love and fertility, and were sacrificed to honor her.

Black-billed magpie—Pica pica

Habitat: Found in thickets along rivers and in meadows and grasslands, as well as around people.

The magpie is a bird with multiple associations. In European folklore it is a symbol of trouble, most likely because of its tendency to “steal” shiny objects. Ancient Romans, however, recognized the magpie as a creature of high intellect and reasoning. The magpie also was sacred to Bacchus and thus may refer to intoxication.

Sparrow (2)—Passer Italiae, a subspecies of Passer domesticus

Habitat: Cultivated land, buildings, and urban areas.

In the classical world, the sparrow often had erotic overtones; the ancient Greek poet Sappho associated the bird with the goddess Aphrodite. The sparrow is also the subject of a poem by the Roman poet Gaius Valerius Catullus that describes the loving relationship between his lover Lesbia and her pet sparrow.

Sparrow (2)—Passer Italiae, a subspecies of Passer domesticus

Habitat: Cultivated land, buildings, and urban areas.

In the classical world, the sparrow often had erotic overtones; the ancient Greek poet Sappho associated the bird with the goddess Aphrodite. The sparrow is also the subject of a poem by the Roman poet Gaius Valerius Catullus that describes the loving relationship between his lover Lesbia and her pet sparrow.

Blue rock thrush—Monticola solitarius

Habitat: Rocky regions and sea coasts, Mediterranean maquis (scrubland vegetation common in the Mediterranean).

The blue rock thrush is a nonmigratory species. It is solitary and shy by nature, although it will nest among monuments and ruins in bustling cities.

Turtledove—Streptopelia turtur

Habitat: Open woodland and parks; occasionally turtledoves nest in large gardens.

Turtledoves acquired their name from the "tur-tur" sound of their call, heard here in this turtledove's song. Like the wood pigeon, the turtledove is often associated with human affection and fidelity.

Wood pigeon (2)—Columba palumbus

Habitat: Forests, wooded areas, and parks.

Wood pigeons, monogamous in their relationships, were a symbol of marital fidelity to the ancient Romans. Wood pigeons likewise were symbols of love and peace, much like the closely related dove.

Golden oriole—Oriolus oriolus

Habitat: Woods, forests, parks, and gardens; found primarily in Europe, western Asia, and northwestern Africa.

The bright yellow and black plumage of this golden oriole identifies it as a male. Female golden orioles are a drab green. The surrounding lush foliage seen here is a fitting setting for the notoriously shy bird.

Wood pigeon (2)—Columba palumbus

Habitat: Forests, wooded areas, and parks.

Wood pigeons, monogamous in their relationships, were a symbol of marital fidelity to the ancient Romans. Wood pigeons likewise were symbols of love and peace, much like the closely related dove.

Viburnum—Viburnum tinus

The viburnum’s showy white flowers and blue-black berries make it a popular garden plant. The leaves are similar to those of bay laurels, also depicted in this fresco.

Oleander—Nerium oleander

Oleander is an evergreen shrub with thick, dark-green leaves and bunches of blossoms in shades of white, pink, and yellow. Its beauty and sweet fragrance belie the plant’s toxicity: even a small dose can be lethal in humans or animals. In his Natural History, Pliny the Elder claimed that oleander could be used effectively against snake bites as one of the first medical antidotes.

Palm (date palm)—Phoenix dactylifera

Date palms did not grow to maturity in the Roman climate and were cultivated as ornamental, rather than fruit-bearing, plants. The dates Romans consumed were imported from warmer climates, for example North Africa. The palm was symbolic of victory and was sacred to the ancient Greeks and to the god Apollo, who was said to have been born beneath a palm on the island of Delos.

Bay laurel—Laurus nobilis

Although today the aromatic leaves of bay laurel are prized in cooking, ancient Greeks and Romans prohibited their use for secular purposes. Bay laurel was reserved for ceremonial occasions, for example in wreaths crowning victors of games and battles. Apollo made the laurel his sacred tree after his love, the nymph Daphne, was transformed into one.

Strawberry tree—Arbutus unedo

The red and yellow fruit of the strawberry tree is edible but bland. Pliny the Elder was said to have given the Arbutus unedo its name, unum edo, “I eat but one.” As an evergreen, strawberry trees are symbolically linked to immortality because their foliage remains fresh and green throughout the year.

Plane tree—Platanus orientalis

Related to the American sycamore, the deciduous plane tree is known for its longevity. The Romans especially valued this species for the shade it provides. Accounts by Pliny the Elder relate that plane trees were nurtured by pouring wine on them in an effort to strengthen the roots. Plane trees are also reputed to be the Tree of Hippocrates, under which Hippocrates taught medicine on the Greek island of Kos.

Common ivy—Hedera helix

Ivy was sacred to the ancient Greeks and Romans and was an attribute of the god Dionysos/Bacchus, who often wore a wreath of ivy. Pliny the Elder prescribed an infusion of ivy leaves as a cure for drunkenness. Greek priests used ivy to adorn the heads of bridegrooms as it was symbolic of a strong union and fidelity in marriage.

Rose—Rosa gallica

As today, roses in antiquity were prized for their perfume and were symbols of love and beauty, sacred to the goddess Aphrodite/Venus. They also had medicinal and cosmetic applications and were used as a face wash and in eyedrops. Burned rose petals were applied as makeup for eyebrows.

Chamomile—Anthemis nobilis

The use of chamomile as a medicinal herb dates back to antiquity when it was employed to treat illnesses such as fever and heatstroke. Anthemis nobilis is the type of chamomile most frequently found in chamomile tea.

Chrysanthemum—Chrysanthemum coronarium

The bright yellow flowers of the chrysanthemum, said to “shine like gold when the rays of the sun strike them,” were used by ancient Romans to make garlands for dedication to the gods. Chrysanthemums had medicinal uses as well, as, for example, in anti-inflammatory medications.

Heartsease (violet)—Viola tricolor
A common native European wildflower, heartsease is an annual creeper, or climbing plant. A member of the sweet violet family, its flowers can be purple, blue, yellow, or white. Heartsease was said to have multiple medicinal uses, including as a diuretic. In antiquity, Romans used to weave heartsease into crowns to help alleviate drunkenness. Ancient Greeks used heartsease as a symbol of fertility and also associated the flower with Aphrodite for its sweet aroma.

Labrum

The term labrum typically refers to a basin that could be piped for water and may have functioned as a birdbath in antiquity, as seems to be the case in this fresco.

Above:
Basin and stand, 1st century AD
Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Napoli

Herms

Herms, stone pillars surmounted by a bust or head, originated as images of Hermes, the protector of travelers in Greek mythology, and were set up at street corners and boundary lines. Gradually other gods, poets, philosophers, statesmen, and homeowners were portrayed as well and herms came to be displayed in private houses and gardens.

Herms

The two herms in this fresco each have a different bust on top. On the left is the image of a maenad, a worshipper of Dionysos/Bacchus, and on the right is the image of a satyr, a half-man, half-goat also associated with the god Dionysos. The two herms support plaques that depict reclining or sleeping women.

Theatrical Masks

The two theatrical masks in the fresco are brightly painted, as marble sculpture would have been in antiquity. The one on the right is adorned with a garland of red and white ribbons and ivy or laurel leaves. Theatrical masks were common decorations in gardens because of their association with Dionysos (whom the Romans called Bacchus), the god of theater, wine, and all the forces of nature.

Above:
Mask of Silenos and Mask of Maenad
1st century BC – 1st century AD
Ufficio Scavi, Pompei

View of garden sculptures in peristyle, the House of the Gilded Cupids
Soprintendenza Archeologica di Pompei

Garden with colonnade (peristyle)

The seaside villas had interior gardens planted within colonnaded courtyards and terraced gardens leading down to the bay. In Pompeii gardens were generally located at the back of dwellings, but residents with the means also had interior gardens located at the core of their houses. In both villas and towns, gardens were accented with fountains, carved reliefs, statues, and figurines that spurted water into pools and watercourses. Water features became especially popular after Octavian (the future emperor Augustus) had an aqueduct built that brought an uninterrupted supply of pressurized running water to the region in the late first century BC.

The sculptural ensemble of a boar attacked by dogs was found in 1858 in a Pompeian house, where it once adorned the semicircular edge of a pool in the central garden. Such works suggest the wilder side of nature while safely containing it for the owners' pleasure.

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Garden scene
Pompeii, House of the Golden Bracelet
1st century BC – 1st century AD
fresco
Ufficio Scavi, Pompei

This fresco formed one of three walls in a living room in the House of the Golden Bracelet in Pompeii. Facing an actual garden with a fountain, pool, and pergola, the room created the illusion of a larger garden area with an eternally bright blue sky, flowers in perpetual bloom, and the continual presence of birds.

The birds and plants depicted in this fresco are characteristic of ancient Roman gardens and often carried symbolic associations. Many of the plants could also be used medicinally, a subject covered by first-century AD author Pliny the Elder in his Natural History. The sculptures seen in the fresco were typical features of Roman gardens as well and carried their own mythic and theatrical connotations.

Bird songs courtesy of Alberto Masi.