Overview
Woman Holding a Balance is a superb example of Johannes Vermeer’s exquisite sense of stability and rhythm. A woman dressed in a blue jacket with fur trim stands serenely at a table in a corner of a room. The scales in her right hand are at equilibrium, suggestive of her inner state of mind. A large painting of the Last Judgment, framed in black, hangs on the back wall of the room. A shimmering blue cloth, open boxes, two strands of pearls, and a gold chain lie on the sturdy table. Soft light comes in through the window and illuminates the scene. The woman is so pensive that the viewer almost hesitates to intrude on her quiet moment of contemplation.
The visual juxtaposition of the woman and the Last Judgment is reinforced by thematic parallels: to judge is to weigh. This scene has religious implications that seem related to Saint Ignatius of Loyola’s instructions, in his Spiritual Exercises, that the faithful, prior to meditating, first examine their conscience and weigh their sins as if facing Judgment Day. Only such introspection could lead to virtuous choices along the path of life. Woman Holding a Balance thus allegorically urges us to conduct our lives with temperance and moderation. The woman is poised between the earthly treasures of gold and pearls and a visual reminder of the eternal consequences of her actions.
Vermeer emphasized this message through his superbly refined composition and lighting. The hand holding the balance, for example, occupies a position directly in front of the frame’s dark corner, while the scales are set off against the bare plaster wall—an effect that Vermeer created through subtle spatial manipulation. Note, for instance, that the bottom of the Last Judgment’s frame is slightly higher to the left of the woman than it is behind her back, creating room for the balance.
Entry
The young woman standing before a table in a corner of a room gazes toward the balance she is holding gently in her right hand. As though waiting for the delicate modulations of the balance to come to rest, she stands transfixed in a moment of equilibrium. She is dressed in a blue morning jacket bordered with white fur; seen through the parting of her jacket are vivid stripes of yellow and orange, perhaps ribbons or part of her bodice. Her white cap falls loosely to either side of her neck, framing her pensive yet serene face. Diffused sunlight, entering through an open window before her, helps illuminate the scene. The light, warmed by the orange curtain, flows across the gray wall and catches the fingers of the woman’s right hand and the balance before resting on her upper figure.
Behind the woman looms a painting of the Last Judgment,
The visual juxtaposition of the woman and the Last Judgment is reinforced by thematic parallels: to judge is to weigh. As Christ sits in majesty on the Day of Judgment, his gesture, with both arms raised, mirrors the opposing direction of the woman’s balance. His judgments are eternal; hers are temporal. Nevertheless, the woman’s pensive response to the balance suggests that her act of judgment, although different in consequence, is as conscientiously considered as that of the Christ behind her. What then is the thematic relationship between her act and the painting on the wall behind her?
This question has been asked time and again, and, indeed, the actual nature of her act and its significance have been variously interpreted. Most earlier interpretations of this painting focused on the act of weighing and were premised upon the assumption that the pans of the woman’s balance contain certain precious objects, generally identified as gold or pearls. Consequently, until recently the painting had been alternately described as the Goldweigher or the Girl Weighing Pearls.
Microscopic examination, however, has revealed that the apparent objects in the scales are painted in a manner quite different from the representation of gold or pearls found elsewhere in this painting
Even so, the jewelry boxes, strands of pearls, and gold chain on the table must be considered in any assessment of this painting’s meaning. As riches they belong to, and are valued within, the temporal world. They have been interpreted in the past as temptations of material wealth and the woman as the personification of Vanitas.
Although the allegorical character of Woman Holding a Balance differs from the more genrelike focus of comparable paintings by Vermeer of the early to mid-1660s, the thematic concerns underlying this work are similar: one should lead a life of temperance and balanced judgment. Indeed, this message, with or without its explicit religious context, is found in paintings from all phases of Vermeer’s career and must represent his profound beliefs about the proper conduct of human life. The balance, the emblem of Justice and eventually of the final judgment, would seem to denote the woman’s responsibility to weigh and balance her own actions,
The character of the scene conforms closely to Saint Ignatius of Loyola’s recommendations for meditation in his Spiritual Exercises, a devotional service with which Vermeer was undoubtedly familiar through his contacts with the Jesuits. As Cunnar has emphasized, Saint Ignatius urged that, prior to meditating, the practicer first examine his conscience and weigh his sins as though he were standing before God on Judgment Day, and then “weigh” his choices and choose a path of life that will allow him to be judged favorably in a “balanced” manner.
I must rather be like the equalized scales of a balance ready to follow the course which I feel is more for the glory and praise of God, our Lord, and the salvation of my soul.
The many different interpretations of this painting that have appeared over the years, nevertheless, are a reminder of how cautious one must be in proposing a given meaning for this work. In addition to questions concerning the contents of the balance, there has been speculation as to whether the woman is pregnant or whether her costume reflects a style of dress in fashion during the early to mid-1660s, when this painting seems to have been executed.
This painting offers one of the most glorious examples of Vermeer’s exquisite sense of balance and rhythm from the early to mid-1660s. The woman, her right hand gently holding the scale, is poised with her small finger extended, which gives a horizontal accent to the gesture. The left arm, gracefully resting on the edge of the table, closes the space around the balance and establishes an echo to the gentle arch of boxes, blue cloth, and sunlight sweeping down from the other side. The scales themselves, perfectly balanced but not symmetrical, are situated against the wall in a small niche of space created especially for them. Although no
Restoration performed in 1994 provides further insights into Vermeer’s extraordinary sensitivity to light and color
The degree of Vermeer’s sensitivity can best be illustrated by comparing this scene with a close counterpart by
Woman Holding a Balance has a distinguished provenance that can be traced in a virtually unbroken line back to the seventeenth century. The enthusiastic descriptions of the work in sales catalogues as well as in critics’ assessments attest to its extraordinary appeal to each and every generation. Perhaps the most fascinating early reference to this work comes from the first sale in which it appeared, the Dissius sale in Amsterdam of 1696. It is the first painting listed in that sale, which included twenty-one paintings by Vermeer, and is described in the following terms: “A young lady weighing gold, in a box by J. van der Meer of Delft, extraordinarily artful and vigorously painted.”
The protective box in which Woman Holding a Balance was framed was probably related to the painting’s special thematic character. Much as with the boxes that
Arthur K. Wheelock Jr.
August 30, 2017
Provenance
Possibly Pieter Claesz van Ruijven [1624-1674], Delft; possibly by inheritance to his wife, Maria de Knuijt [d. 1681], Delft; possibly by inheritance to her daughter, Magdalena van Ruijven [1655-1682], Delft; possibly by inheritance to her husband, Jacobus Abrahamsz. Dissius [1653-1695], Delft;[1] (his sale, Amsterdam, 16 May 1696, no. 1);[2] Isaac Rooleeuw [c. 1650-1710], Amsterdam; (his bankruptcy sale, Amsterdam, 20 April 1701, no. 6); Paolo van Uchelen [c. 1641-1702], Amsterdam; by inheritance 1703 to his son, Paolo van Uchelen the Younger [1673-1754], Amsterdam; by inheritance to his daughter, Anna Gertruijda van Uchelen [1705-1766], Amsterdam; (her estate sale, B. Tideman, Amsterdam, 18 March 1767, no. 6); Kok.[3] Nicolaas Nieuhoff [1733-1776], Amsterdam; (his estate sale, Arnoldus Dankmeyer, Amsterdam,14 April 1777 and days following, no. 116); Van den Bogaard.[4] Maximilian I Joseph, King of Bavaria [1756-1825]; (his estate sale, Munich, 5 December 1826, no. 101, as by Gabriel Metsu); Louis Charles Victor de Riquet, duc de Caraman [1762-1839], Paris; (his sale, Salle Lebrun by Lacoste, Paris, 10-12 May 1830, no. 68). Casimir Pierre Péreir [1777-1832], Paris; his heirs; (his estate sale, Christie & Manson, London, 5 May 1848, no. 7);[5] purchased by Péreir's son, probably Auguste C.V.L. Périer, later Casimir-Périer [1811-1876];[6] probably by inheritance to Auguste's daughter, Marie Thérèse Henriette Jeanne, comtesse de Ségur [1844-1916, née Périer];[7] purchased 1910 by (P. & D. Colnaghi & Co., London); one-quarter share purchased October 1910 by (M. Knoedler & Co., New York); sold 11 January 1911 to Peter A. B. Widener, Lynnewood Hall, Elkins Park, Pennsylvania;[8] inheritance from Estate of Peter A. B. Widener by gift through power of appointment of Joseph E. Widener, Elkins Park, Pennsylvania; gift 1942 to NGA.
Exhibition History
- 1912
- Exhibition of Old Masters for the Benefit of The Artists' Funds and Artists' Aid Societies, M. Knoedler & Co., New York, 1912, no. 49.
- 1925
- A Loan Exhibition of Dutch Paintings, Detroit Institute of Arts, 1925, no. 33, repro.
- 1933
- A Century of Progress Exhibition of Paintings and Sculpture, Art Institute of Chicago, 1933, no. 80.
- 1984
- Masters of Seventeenth-Century Dutch Genre Painting, Philadelphia Museum of Art; Gemäldegalerie, Staatliche Museen Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Berlin; Royal Academy of Arts, London, 1984, no. 118.
- 1995
- Dutch Cabinet Galleries, National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C., 1995-1996, no cat.
- 1995
- Johannes Vermeer, National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.; Royal Cabinet of Paintings Mauritshuis, The Hague, 1995-1996, no. 10, repro.
- 1998
- A Collector's Cabinet, National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C., 1998, no. 61, fig. 14.
- 1999
- Johannes Vermeer: The Art of Painting, National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C., 1999-2000, brochure, fig. 9.
- 2000
- The Public and the Private in the Age of Vermeer, Osaka Municipal Museum of Art, 2000, no. 33, repro.
- 2001
- Vermeer and the Delft School, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; The National Gallery, London, 2001, no. 73, repro., as Woman with a Balance.
- 2003
- Vermeer y el interior holandés, Museo Nacional del Prado, Madrid, 2003, no. 35, repro.
- 2009
- Loan for display with permanent collection, Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, 2009.
- 2011
- Vermeer in München. König Maximilian I. Joseph von Bayern as Sammler Alter Meister [Vermeer in Munich - King Max I Joseph of Bavaria as a Collector of Old Masters], Bayerisches Staatsgemäldesammlungen - Alte Pinakothek, Munich, 2011, no. 1, repro.
- 2012
- Masterpiece of the Month, Detroit Institute of Arts, 2012, no catalogue.
- 2017
- Vermeer and the Masters of Genre Painting: Inspiration and Rivalry, Musée du Louvre, Paris; National Gallery of Ireland, Dublin; National Gallery of Art, Washington, 2017-2018, no. 14.2, repro.
Technical Summary
The original support is a very fine, tightly woven fabric.[1] When the painting was lined, the format was enlarged about one-half inch on all sides by opening out and flattening the tacking margins. The composition was extended by overpainting these unpainted edges. Regularly spaced tacking holes and losses in the ground layer along the folds of fabric bent over the original stretcher confirm that these smaller dimensions were the original format.
A moderately thick, warm buff ground is present overall, and extends onto the tacking margins.[2] Examination has not shown evidence of an underdrawing but does show a brown painted sketch describing the forms with fine lines and indicating shadows with areas of wash. Microscopic examination shows a pinhole in the back wall near the balance, where the artist probably pinned strings to establish the orthogonals of the perspective system.[3] Both the ground color and the brown sketch influence the final image, the ground color warming the thinly painted flesh tones and hood and the brown sketch contributing shadows to the blue jacket. Vermeer blended finely ground, fluid paint with imperceptible brushstrokes and added rounded, thicker touches to create specular highlights. He softened some contours by overlapping paints and suggested others by leaving a thin line of brown sketch between two edges. No pentimenti are visible in the X-radiograph; an infrared photograph reveals a change in the position of the balance.
Small losses are found in the figure, small areas of abrasion in the dark passages. Discolored inpainting and varnish were removed in 1994. During this treatment, black overpaint covering the frame of the Last Judgment on the wall behind the woman was removed, revealing two vertical bands of yellow paint along the right side of the frame.[4] Overpaint that had been applied along the opened-out tacking margins when the painting was restretched on a larger stretcher has been removed. The painted image, now smaller, reflects Vermeer’s original intention.
[1] Average densities of 20.5 threads/cm horizontally and 16.5 threads/cm vertically were measured by the Thread Count Automation Project of Cornell University and Rice University (see report dated May 2010 in NGA Conservation department files).
[2] For pigment analysis of the paint layers see Hermann Kühn, "A Study of the Pigments and the Grounds Used by Jan Vermeer," in National Gallery of Art Report and Studies in the History of Art 2 (1968): 191–192. Kühn’s conclusion that the yellow of the curtain is Indian yellow is based on a sample taken from the overpaint near the edge of the painting. Subsequent pigment analysis of the ground was undertaken on June 26, 1974, by Robert L. Feller, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, and by the NGA Scientific Research department using X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy and X-ray powder diffraction and optical microscopy (see reports dated September 30, 1994, and October 12, 1994, in NGA Conservation department files). See also Melanie Gifford, "Painting Light: Recent Observations on Vermeer's Technique," in Vermeer Studies, ed. Ivan Gaskell and Michiel Jonker (Washington, 1998), 185–199.
[3] For this practice in Vermeer’s paintings see Jørgen Wadum, "Vermeer in Perspective," in Johannes Vermeer, ed. Arthur K. Wheelock Jr. (New Haven and London, 1995), 66–79.
[4] The paint and ground layers in this area were studied by the NGA Scientific Research department using cross-sections (see report dated July 11, 1994, in NGA Conservation department files).
Bibliography
- 1866
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- 1939
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- 1939
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- 1940
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- 1942
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- 1944
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- 1945
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- 1946
- Blum, André. Vermeer et Thoré-Bürger. Geneva, 1946: 30, 42, 60, 135, 171-172, no. 27.
- 1948
- National Gallery of Art. Paintings and Sculpture from the Widener Collection. Washington, 1948: 65, repro., as A Woman Weighing Gold.
- 1948
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- 1949
- Thienen, Frithjof van. Jan Vermeer of Delft. Masters of Painting. New York, 1949: 19, 23, no. 23, repro.
- 1950
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- 1951
- Whittet, G. S. "A Gallery of Art Dealers: P. & D. Colnaghi." The Studio 142 (October 1951): 118.
- 1952
- Gowing, Lawrence. Vermeer. London, 1952: 44, 53, 135-136, pls. 44-46.
- 1952
- Malraux, André, ed. Vermeer de Delft. Paris, 1952: 16, repro., 62, no. xii, color repro.
- 1954
- Bloch, Vitale. Tutta la Pittura di Vermeer di Delft. Milan, 1954: 21, 33, pls. 38, 39 (detail) .
- 1956
- Walker, John. National Gallery of Art, Washington. New York, 1956: 44, color repro., as A Woman Weighing Gold.
- 1957
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- 1958
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- 1959
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- 1960
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- 1960
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- 1963
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- 1963
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- 1963
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- 1965
- National Gallery of Art. Summary Catalogue of European Paintings and Sculpture. Washington, 1965: 135, as A Woman Weighing Gold.
- 1966
- Cairns, Huntington, and John Walker, eds. A Pageant of Painting from the National Gallery of Art. 2 vols. New York, 1966: 2: 256, color repro., as Woman Weighing Gold.
- 1966
- Descargues, Pierre. Vermeer. Translated by James Emmons. Geneva, 1966: 93, 131, color repros. 87, 92.
- 1966
- Rosenberg, Jakob, Seymour Slive, and Engelbert H. ter Kuile. Dutch Art and Architecture: 1600-1800. Pelican History of Art. Batlimore, 1966: 121-122, pl. 91b.
- 1967
- Bianconi, Piero. The Complete Paintings of Vermeer. New York, 1967: 92, no. 24, color pl. xix.
- 1967
- Koningsberger, Hans. The World of Vermeer 1632-1675. New York, 1967: 148, 152, 153, color repro.
- 1968
- Kühn, Hermann. "A Study of the Pigments and the Grounds Used by Jan Vermeer." Report and Studies in the History of Art 2 (1968-1969):191-192, no. 17.
- 1968
- National Gallery of Art. European Paintings and Sculpture, Illustrations. Washington, 1968: 122, repro., as A Woman Weighing Gold.
- 1970
- Walicki, Michal. Jan Vermeer van Delft. Dresden, 1970: 32-37, fig. 49.
- 1971
- Carstensen, Richard, and Marielene Putscher. "Ein Bild von Vermeer in medizinhistorischen Sicht." Deutsches Ärzteblatt-Ärtzliche Mitteilungen 68 (December 1971): 1-6, repro.
- 1972
- Kahr, Madlyn Millner. "Vermeer's Girl Asleep." Metropolitan Museum Journal 6 (1972): 129 n. 29.
- 1973
- Finley, David Edward. A Standard of Excellence: Andrew W. Mellon Founds the National Gallery of Art at Washington. Washington, 1973: 93, 96 repro.
- 1973
- Mistler, Jean. Vermeer. Collection Le Peintre et l’Homme. Paris, 1973: no. 19, repro.
- 1973
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- 1974
- Grimme, Ernst Günther. Jan Vermeer van Delft. Cologne, 1974: 54, no. 17, figs. 11, 12 (detail).
- 1975
- Blankert, Albert. Johannes Vermeer van Delft, 1632-1675. Utrecht, 1975: 62-64, 82, 149-150, no. 15, color repro.
- 1975
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- 1975
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- 1976
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- 1976
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- 1976
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- 1977
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- 1977
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- 1977
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- 1977
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- 1978
- Blankert, Albert. Vermeer of Delft: Complete Edition of the Paintings. Oxford, 1978: 22, 41-44, 49, 54, 67, 161-162, no. 15, color repro.
- 1978
- Gemäldegalerie Staatliche Museen Preussischer Kulturbesitz. Catalogue of Paintings: 13th-18th Century. Translated by Linda B. Parshall. 2nd revised ed. Berlin-Dahlem, 1978: 212.
- 1978
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- 1979
- Snow, Edward A. A Study of Vermeer. Berkeley, 1979: 10, 34-36, 38, 44, 60, 62, 97, 126, 132-136, 138, 174-176, color repro. fig. 13; color details figs. 26, 51, 52.
- 1979
- Watson, Ross. The National Gallery of Art, Washington. New York, 1979: 75, pl. 61.
- 1980
- Reuterswärd, Patrik. "Om realismen i holländsk bildtradition." Konsthistorisk Tidskrift 49 (June 1980): 8, fig. 8.
- 1980
- Seth, Lennart. "Vermeer och van Veens ‘Amorum Emblemata’." Konsthistorisk Tidskrift 49, no. 1 (June 1980): 24.
- 1980
- Sutton, Peter C. Pieter de Hooch: Complete Edition with a Catalogue Raisonné. Oxford, 1980: 45, 68 n. 37, fig. 32.
- 1981
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- 1981
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- 1983
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- 1984
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- 1984
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- 1984
- Sutton, Peter C. Masters of Seventeenth-Century Dutch Genre Painting. Edited by Jane Iandola Watkins. Exh. cat. Philadelphia Museum of Art; Gemäldegalerie, Staatliche Museen Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Berlin; Royal Academy of Arts, London. Philadelphia, 1984: no. 118.
- 1984
- Walker, John. National Gallery of Art, Washington. Rev. ed. New York, 1984: 301, no. 400, color repro.
- 1985
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- 1985
- Wyss, Beat. Trauer der Vollendung: von der Ästhetik des Deutschen Idealismus zur Kulturkritik an der Moderne. Münich, 1985: 98-101, repro.
- 1986
- Aillaud, Gilles, Albert Blankert, and John Michael Montias. Vermeer. Paris, 1986: 49, 51, 112, 114, 116, no. 15, 183-185, pl. 15.
- 1986
- Sutton, Peter C. A Guide to Dutch Art in America. Grand Rapids and Kampen, 1986: 311, repro.
- 1988
- Bialostocki, Jan. "Mere Imitation of Nature or Symbolic Image of the World? Problems in the Interpretation of Dutch Painting of the XVIIth Century." In The Message of Images: Studies in the History of Art. Vienna, 1988: 171, fig. 129.
- 1988
- Reuterswärd, Patrik. "Vermeer. Ett försvar för ögats vittnesbörd." Konsthistorisk Tidskrift 57, part 2 (1988): 55-59, fig. 2.
- 1988
- Wheelock, Arthur K., Jr. Jan Vermeer. Masters of Art. 2nd rev. ed. New York, 1988: 82, color repro.
- 1989
- Montias, John Michael. Vermeer and His Milieu: A Web of Social History. Princeton, 1989: 162, 182, 191, 255-256, 261, fig. 30.
- 1990
- Cunnar, Eugene R. "The Viewer’s Share: Three Sectarian Readings of Vermeer’s Woman with a Balance." Exemplaria 2 (1990): 501-536.
- 1990
- Liedtke, Walter A. "Dutch Paintings in America: The Collectors and their Ideals." In Great Dutch Paintings from America. Edited by Ben P.J. Broos. Exh. cat. Royal Picture Gallery Mauritshuis, The Hague; Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco. The Hague and Zwolle, 1990: 43.
- 1990
- Liedtke, Walter A. "Dutch Paintings in America: The Collectors and their Ideals." In Great Dutch Paintings from America. Edited by Ben P.J. Broos. Exh. cat. Royal Picture Gallery Mauritshuis, The Hague; Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco. Zwolle, 1990: 43.
- 1991
- Bal, Mieke. Reading "Rembrandt": beyond the word-image opposition. Cambridge new art history and criticism. Cambridge, 1991: 1-4, 19-23, 177, repro. 0.1.
- 1991
- Kopper, Philip. America's National Gallery of Art: A Gift to the Nation. New York, 1991: 195.
- 1991
- Martz, Louis L. From Renaissance to Baroque: essays on literature and art. Columbia, Missouri, 1991: 32-33, fig. 12.
- 1991
- Nash, John. Vermeer. London, 1991: 24, 26, 28, 39, 98-99, color repro.
- 1992
- Fiero, Gloria K. The Age of the Baroque and the European Enlightenment. The Humanist Tradition 4. 1st ed. [7th ed. 2015] Dubuque, Iowa, 1992: 47-48, fig. 22.10.
- 1992
- Lucie-Smith, Edward. Art and Civilization. New York, 1992: 300-301, fig. 17.10.
- 1992
- National Gallery of Art. National Gallery of Art, Washington. New York, 1992: 137, repro.
- 1993
- Schneider, Norbert. Jan Vermeer 1632-1675: Verhüllung der Gefühle. Cologne, 1993: 95, no. 59.
- 1993
- Stoichita, Victor I. L'Instauration du tableau: Métapeinture à l'aube des temps modernes. Paris, 1993: 176-177, fig. 75.
- 1994
- Asemissen, Hermann Ulrich, and Gunter Schweikhart. Malerei als Thema der Malerei. Berlin, 1994: 232-233, fig. 29.
- 1994
- Brunette, Peter, and David Wills. Deconstruction and the Visual Arts: Art, Media, Architecture. Cambridge, England, 1994: 51, fig. 1.
- 1994
- Knafou, Rémy. Vermeer: mystère du quotidien. Paris, 1994: 38-39, repro.
- 1995
- Bailey, Martin. "The Painter of Light." Silver Kris - The Travel Magazine of Singapore Airlines (November 1995): 42-45, repro.
- 1995
- Bailey, Martin. Vermeer. London, 1995: 72-74, repro.
- 1995
- Cooper, James F. "Vermeer Illuminates the National Gallery." American Arts Quarterly (Fall 1995): 3-7, repro.
- 1995
- Dudat, Helen. "Time stands still in the harmonious world of Vermeer." Smithsonian 26, no. 8 (November 1995): 110.
- 1995
- Feldman, Edmund Burke. The Artist: A Social History. 2nd ed. Englewood Cliffs, 1995: repro. 190, 191.
- 1995
- Fiero, Gloria K. The Age of the Baroque and the European Enlightenment. The Humanistic Tradition 4. 2nd ed. [7th ed. 2015] Madison, 1995: 55, fig. 22.10.
- 1995
- Gregory, Quint [Henry D. Gregory V]. "Vermeer, tout l'oeuvre peint." Connaissance des Arts 522 (November 1996): 80-81, figs. 4, 5 (detail)..
- 1995
- Janson, Horst W., and Anthony F. Janson. History of art. 5th ed. New York, 1995: 38, 39 fig. 23.
- 1995
- Slive, Seymour, and Jakob Rosenberg. Dutch painting 1600-1800. Pelican History of Art. Revised and expanded ed. New Haven, 1995: 148.
- 1995
- Wheelock, Arthur K., Jr., and Ben P. J. Broos. Johannes Vermeer. Edited by Arthur K. Wheelock, Jr. Exh. cat. National Gallery of Art, Washington; Royal Picture Gallery Mauritshuis, The Hague. Zwolle, 1995: no. 10, repro.
- 1995
- Wheelock, Arthur K., Jr. Dutch Paintings of the Seventeenth Century. The Collections of the National Gallery of Art Systematic Catalogue. Washington, 1995: 371-377, color repro. 373.
- 1995
- Wheelock, Arthur K., Jr. Vermeer and the Art of Painting. New Haven, 1995: 96 color fig. 70, 97-103, detail and conservation figs. 71-73, no. A16, repro. 176.
- 1995
- Wright, Christopher. Vermeer: catalogue raisonné. London, 1995: 56-57, repro.
- 1996
- Chalumeau, Jean Luc. Vermeer, 1632-1675. Découvrons l'art - XVIIe siècle 1. Paris, 1996: no. 14, repro.
- 1996
- Hertel, Christiane. Vermeer: Reception and Interpretation. Cambridge, 1996: 215-216, repro.
- 1996
- Kersten, Michiel C.C., and Daniëlle H.A.C. Lokin. Delft masters, Vermeer's contemporaries: illusionism through the conquest of light and space. Exh. cat. Stedelijk Museum Het Prinsenhof, Delft. Zwolle, 1996: 204-206, repro.
- 1996
- Kissick, John. Art: Context and Criticism. Madison, 1996: 21-22, fig. 1.7.
- 1996
- Larsen, Erik. Jan Vermeer. Translated by Tania Gargiulo. Biblioteca d'arte. Florence, 1996: 99-101.
- 1996
- Netta, Irene. Das Phänomen Zeit bei Jan Vermeer van Delft: eine Analyse der innerbildlichen Zeitstrukturen seiner ein- und mehrfigurigen Interieurbilder. Studien zur Kunstgeschichte 105. Hildesheim, 1996: 257, fig. 23.
- 1996
- Wallis, Stephen. "Sketchbook: Knoedler Turns 150." Art & Antiques 19, no. 10 (November 1996): 18.
- 1997
- Gebhardt, Volker. Kunstgeschichte Malerei. Cologne, 1997: no. 127, repro.
- 1997
- Gowing, Lawrence. Vermeer. 3rd ed. London, 1997: 135-136, figs. 44-46.
- 1997
- Niggemeyer, Margarete, and Hans-Walter Stork. Perlen schimmern auf den Toren: eine Auslegung des Perlensymbols in christlichen und ausserchristlichen Traditionen. Paderborn, 1997: 63, repro.
- 1997
- Robinson, James. "Vermeer." Classical Realism Journal 3, no. 2 (1997): 12, 15 fig. 8.
- 1997
- Robinson, James. "Vermeer, II." Classical Realism Journal 4, no. 1 (1997): repro. 46, 48.
- 1997
- Scholz, Georg. Lyrische Bilder: Gedichte nach Gemälden von Jan Vermeer. Munich, 1997: 42, repro.
- 1997
- Toman, Rolf. Die Kunst des Barock: Architektur, Skulptur, Malerei. Cologne, 1997: 465, repro.
- 1997
- Wheelock, Arthur K., Jr. Vermeer: The Complete Works. New York, 1997: 36-37, no. 16, repro.
- 1998
- Fiero, Gloria K. Faith, Reason and Power in the Early Modern World. The Humanistic Tradition 4. 3rd ed. New York, 1998: no. 22.10, repro.
- 1998
- Gersch-Nešic, Beth. “Pregnancy." In Encyclopedia of Comparative Iconography: Themes Depicted in Works of Art. Edited by Helene E. Roberts. 2 vols. Chicago, 1998: 2:754.
- 1998
- Gifford, Melanie E. "Painting Light: Recent Observations on Vermeer's Technique." In Vermeer Studies. Edited by Ivan Gaskell and Michiel Jonker. Studies in the History of Art 55 (1998): 185-199, fig. 1.
- 1998
- Roberts, Helene E., ed. Encyclopedia of Comparative Iconography: Themes Depicted in Works of Art. 2 vols. Chicago, 1998: 2:749, 753.
- 1998
- Schlenke, Hubertus. Vermeer, mit Spinoza gesehen. Berlin, 1998: 52-55, figs. 13a, 13b (detail), 94-99, figs. 21, 21a (detail).
- 1998
- Sutton, Peter C. Pieter de Hooch, 1629-1684. Exh. cat. Dulwich Picture Gallery, London; Wadsworth Atheneum, Hartford. New Haven, 1998: 52-55, repro.
- 1998
- Wheelock, Arthur K., Jr. A Collector's Cabinet. Exh. cat. National Gallery of Art, Washington, 1998: 24, 26, fig. 14, 32, 68, no. 61.
- 1998
- Wheelock, Arthur K., Jr. Johannes Vermeer (1632-1675): Sainte Praxède - Saint Praxedis. Collection de Madame Piasecka Johnson. Exh. cat. Musée de La Chapelle de la Visitation, Monaco, 1998: 8, 17 fig. 7, 28.
- 1999
- Stokstad, Marilyn. Art History. 2 vols. Rev.ised ed. New York, 1999: 2:795-797, fig. 19-53.
- 1999
- Sweet, Christopher. The Essential Johannes Vermeer. New York, 1999: 70-71, repro.
- 1999
- Zeki, Semir. Inner vision: an exploration of art and the brain. Oxford, 1999: 27-29, 28 fig. 4.3.
- 1999
- Zuffi, Stefano, and Francesca Castria. La peinture baroque. Translated from Italian by Silvia Bonucci and Claude Sophie Mazéas. Paris, 1999: 208-209, color repro.
- 2000
- Chapman, H. Perry. "Women in Vermeer's Home: Mimesis and ideation." Nederlands Kunsthistorisch Jaarboek 51 (2000): 254-257, repro.
- 2000
- Kallenberg, Kjell, and Gerry Larsson. Människans hälsa: Livsåskådning och personlighet. Stockholm, 2000: cover repro.
- 2000
- Savedoff, Barbara E. Transforming Images: How Photography Complicates the Picture. Ithaca, 2000: 11-14, repro.
- 2000
- Wheelock, Arthur K., Jr. The Public and the Private in the Age of Vermeer. Exh. cat. Osaka Municipal Museum of Art. London, 2000: 10, repro. detail, 13, fig. 4, cat. 33, 182-184, repro., 201, no. 16, repro.
- 2001
- Bal, Mieke. Looking In: The Art of Viewing. Critical voices in art, theory and culture. Amsterdam, 2001: 65-66, repro.
- 2001
- Franits, Wayne E., ed. The Cambridge companion to Vermeer. Cambridge, England, and New York, 2001: 4, 5, 54, 60-63, 68, 69-70, 71-72, 122-125, 141, 143, 144, 147-149, 154, 159-160, 169-170, 180, pl.15.
- 2001
- Netta, Irene. Vermeer's world: an artist and his town. Pegasus Library. Munich and New York, 2001: 17, 84, repro.
- 2001
- Wolf, Bryan Jay. Vermeer and the Invention of Seeing. Chicago, 2001: 167-170, repro.
- 2002
- Bailey, Anthony. Vermeer. Translated by Bettina Blumenberg. Berlin, 2002: 148-149, repro.
- 2002
- Kaufmann, Thomas DaCosta, ed. L'art flamand et hollandais: Belgique et Pays-Bas, 1520-1914. Paris, 2002: repro. 268, 302.
- 2003
- Fowler, Alastair. Renaissance realism: narrative images in literature and art. Oxford, 2003: 10, fig. 15.
- 2003
- Huerta, Robert D. Giants of Delft: Johannes Vermeer and the natural philosophers: the parallel search for knowledge during the age of discovery. Lewisburg, 2003: 47, 66, 68, repro.
- 2003
- Vergara, Alejandro. Vermeer y el interior holandés. Exh. cat. Museo nacional del Prado, Madrid, 2003: 172-173, 254, repro.
- 2004
- Cabanne, Pierre. Vermeer. Translated by John Tittensor. Paris, 2004: 164, 180, repro.
- 2004
- Hand, John Oliver. National Gallery of Art: Master Paintings from the Collection. Washington and New York, 2004: 206-207, no. 163, color repro.
- 2004
- Paskow, Alan. The paradoxes of art: a phenomenological investigation. Cambridge, 2004: 174-183, pl. 2.
- 2004
- Salomon, Nanette. Shifting priorities: gender and genre in seventeenth-century Dutch painting. Stanford, 2004: 13-18, fig. 1.
- 2004
- Wheelock, Arthur K., Jr. "Framing Vermeer." In Collected Opinions: Essays on Netherlandish Art in Honour of Alfred Bader. Edited by Volker Manuth and Axel Rüger. London, 2004: 232-238, repro.
- 2005
- Alpers, Svetlana. The Vexations of Art: Velázquez and Others. New Haven and London, 2005: 102-104, repro.
- 2005
- Harris, Ann Sutherland. Seventeenth-century art & architecture. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, 2005: 371, repro.
- 2005
- Huerta, Robert D. Vermeer and Plato: painting the ideal. Lewisburg, 2005: 54, 55, repro.
- 2005
- Lopes, Dominic McIver. Sight and sensibility: evaluating pictures. Oxford, 2005: 1-5, repro.
- 2005
- Stokstad, Marilyn. Art History. Rev. 2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, 2005: 776, color fig. 19.64.
- 2006
- Dekiert, Marcus. Alte Pinakothek: Holländische und deutsche Malerei des 17. Jahrhunderts. Munich, 2006: 19-21, color fig. 9.
- 2006
- Franits, Wayne E. Pieter de Hooch: A woman preparing bread and butter for a boy. Getty Museum Studies on Art. Los Angeles, 2006: 30-32, fig. 29, 72 n. 25.
- 2006
- Stone, Harriet Amy. Tables of knowledge: Descartes in Vermeer's studio. Ithaca, 2006: 125-131, pl. 14.
- 2006
- Wheelock, Arthur K., Jr. "A Museum Curator’s Perspective." IFAR Journal: International Foundation of Art Research 8, no. 3-4 (2006): 96-97, repro.
- 2008
- Dolnick, Edward. The Forger’s Spell: A True Story of Vermeer, Nazis, and the Greatest Art Hoax of the Twentieth Century. New York, 2008: 90-91.
- 2008
- Liedtke, Walter A. Vermeer: the complete paintings. Ghent, 2008: no. 19, 118-121, repro.
- 2008
- Lopez, Jonathan. The man who made Vermeers: unvarnishing the legend of master forger Han van Meegeren. Orlando, 2008: 53.
- 2009
- Gariff, David, Eric Denker, and Dennis P. Weller. The World's Most Influential Painters and the Artists They Inspired. Hauppauge, NY, 2009: 83, color repro.
- 2010
- Taylor, Paul. Vermeer, Lairesse and Composition. Hofstede de Groot Lectures 1. Zwolle, 2010: 6, 21, repro.
- 2011
- Dekiert, Marcus. Vermeer in München: König Max I Joseph von Bayern als Sammler Alter Meister. Exh. cat. Bayerisches Staatsgemäldesammlungen, Alte Pinakothek. Munich, 2011: 48-53, no. 1, color repro.
- 2011
- Henderson, Jasper and Victor Schiferli. Vermeer: The Life and Work of a Master. Amsterdam, 2011: 46-49, color ill.
- 2011
- Nuechterlein, Jeanne. Translating Nature Into Art: Holbein, The Reformation, and Renaissance Rhetoric. University Park, Pennsylvania, 2011: 3, fig. 3.
- 2011
- Wheelock, Arthur K., Jr., and Daniëlle H.A.C. Lokin. Communication: Visualizing the Human Connection in the Age of Vermeer. Japanese ed. Exh. cat. Kyoto Municipal Museum of Art; Miyagi Museum of Art, Sendai; Bunkamura Museum of Art, Tokyo. Tokyo, 2011: 46, fig. 14.
- 2011
- Wheelock, Arthur K., Jr., and Daniëlle H.A.C. Lokin. Human Connections in the Age of Vermeer. Exh. cat. Kyoto Municipal Museum of Art; Miyagi Museum of Art, Sendai; Bunkamura Museum of Art, Tokyo. London, 2011: 46, fig. 14.
- 2011
- Wieseman, Marjorie E. Vermeer's Women: Secrets and Silence. Exh. cat. Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge. New Haven, 2011: 82-85, repro.
- 2012
- Moser, Benjamin. "Mammonomania: A Reappraisal of Dutch Golden Age Paintings." Harper's 324, no. 1,942 (March 2012): 73-75, color repro.
- 2012
- Wheelock, Arthur K., Jr., Walter A. Liedtke, and Sandrina Bandera Bistoletti. Vermeer: il secolo d'oro dell'arte olandese. Exh. cat. Scuderie del Quirinale, Rome. Milan, 2012: 26, 27 fig. 5, 67-68, 72 fig. 29.
- 2014
- Wheelock, Arthur K, Jr. "The Evolution of the Dutch Painting Collection." National Gallery of Art Bulletin no. 50 (Spring 2014): 2-19, repro.
- 2016
- Warner-Johnson, Tim, and Jeremy Howard, ed. Colnaghi: Past, Present and Future: An Anthology. London, 2016: 108-109, color plate 31.
- 2018
- Meersschaert, Erik. Adrian Brouwer--zo zijn leven, zo zijn werk. Oudenaarde, 2018: 256, 261, color repro.
- 2020
- Grootenboer, Hanneke. The Pensive Image: Art as a Form of Thinking. Chicago, 2020: 11.
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